Institutions
Organizations which have been gradually constructed over varying periods of time and which reflect established values, beliefs and practices. There are many different types of institutions in both Britain and the USA, ranging from the large state or public organizations (e.g. the political, legal, educational and economic systems) to smaller bodies (e.g. leisure, sports and religious organizations). Most institutions represent a top-down structure with a dominant centre, but they are not static, since they may change, develop or disappear over time

Commonwealth
A worldwide organization of former and present British colonies and the United Kingdom. They accept the British monarch as the head of the Commonwealth, but have no central governing body or common laws. The Commonwealth Secretariat in London promotes consultation and co-operation between the member states and administers assistance programmes to developing countries. In addition, the Commonwealth holds conferences and sporting games, and has many exchange programmes and trade agreements between the various member nations.

Old Commonwealth
Old Commonwealth countries include the large former colonies of the British Empire, such as Canada, Australia and New Zealand. These countries have mainly white populations and achieved their independence from Britain earlier than other colonies.

New Commonwealth
The New Commonwealth refers to former colonies in the West Indies, Asia and Africa which received their independence from Britain at a later stage than Old Commonwealth countries. The distinction between the Old and the New Commonwealth has played a central role in immigration debates in post-war Britain which have focused on limiting the number of non-white immigrants from the New Commonwealth countries.

Heterogeneity/diversity
The terms refer to the many different aspects of British society and are especially important when talking about the population, which is made up of a mixture of different tribes and nationalities through immigration and intermarriage at various points in history. But diversity is generally reflected in most areas of British society, since there is a great choice of various services and activities, such as schools, hospitals and religious bodies, to mention but a few examples.

Thatcherism
The term refers to Conservative policies under Margaret Thatcher, who was Prime Minister between 1979 and 1990. An emphasis was placed on private enterprise and privatization, the reduction of government expenditure, cutting the power of trade unions and local government and reducing inflation.

Nonconformism
A term used to describe the unwillingness to conform to the practices and beliefs of the established national Church. Nonconformism has led to the formation of separate church bodies, such as the Methodist and Baptist Churches and the United Reformed Church. Nonconformism has been especially strong in Wales, where Methodism has played a central role.

Regionalism/regions/regional
A region is a general term used to refer to a specific area of the country. Some regions have a stronger identity (regionalism) attached to their region than others. This is especially true of the regions with the greatest distance to London, such as the North West and the South East. Following devolution for Scotland and Wales the Labour government has established Regional Development Agencies in eight English regions to give them a more formal role, which could possibly lead to regional assemblies in England. At the moment, however, regional identities are not strong enough to allow this, since people’s identity is more local, attached to the actual town or city they live in.

Devolution
The transfer of some powers from a superior body to an elected inferior body. The term covers the processes of erecting a Scottish Parliament, a Welsh Assembly and a Northern Irish Assembly, which were started by the Labour government in 1997. The process does not follow one single model which applies to all the three countries, but each country has ended up with a separate form of devolution. Scotland and Northern Ireland have both legislative and executive powers in devolved matters (e.g. education, agriculture and health services), whereas Wales only has the power to implement Westminster legislation. Devolution in Northern Ireland is further complicated by the peace process, the establishment of an assembly being one of the aspects of the peace agreement from 1998 (see Good Friday Agreement).

New Labour
The label for the Labour Party after its modernization process in the 1990s, through which it departed from many of the traditional ‘old’ Labour policies. Central to these changes was the rewriting of Clause 4, which had devoted the party to nationalized industries. The party also disposed of its tax-and-spend policy as it made redistribution of wealth dependent on economic growth and reduced the privilege of trade unions. All in all the changes resulted in a shift to the political centre and the embracement of a number of Thatcherite policies by the Labour Party. In addition the party devoted itself to constitutional reform.

Britain
The short-term version of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, but also commonly used to refer only to Great Britain (Scotland, Wales, England). The term is used with both political and geographical reference.

British Isles
A geographical (not political or constitutional) term for Great Britain (England, Scotland, Wales) and Ireland (including the Republic of Ireland) together with all offshore islands (Anglesey, the Isle of Wight, the Orkneys, the Shetlands, the Hebrides and Scillies). All these islands are part of the British political union.

United Kingdom
A short term for the United Kingdom of Great Britain (England, Scotland, Wales) and Northern Ireland. The term is a political and constitutional title rather than a geographical one.

Crown Dependencies
The term refers to the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands which are not part of the United Kingdom. They are self-governing but have a historical relationship with the British Crown. They have their own independent legal systems, legislatures and administrative structures. However, the British government is responsible for their defence and foreign relations and can interfere if good administration is not maintained.

European Union (Community)
Britain’s relationship to Europe has always been difficult and has been characterized by semi-detachment and by internal political division. The reason for this is at least partly to be found in the relative decline of political and economic power which Britain experienced following the Second World War. Also, Britain was reluctant to participate in new forms of European integration that seemed to challenge national sovereignty. When Britain finally entered the European Community in 1973 after having been rejected twice by the French, the British government presented the EC as an organization which did not substantially threaten national sovereignty. As the European Union has moved towards closer integration and supranationalism at the expense of national sovereignty, scepticism has increased in Britain, especially within the Conservative Party. Both the former Tory leaders William Hague, Margaret Thatcher and today’s leader of the Conservative Party, Ian Duncan Smith, are very sceptical of the European Union and its institutions. The Labour Prime Minister Tony Blair, on the other hand, is quite positive and wants Britain to play a central role in Europe. Following British membership of the EU, British law is now subordinate to European law.

Privatization
The policy of transferring publicly owned state concerns and industries to private sector ownership, mostly by the sale of shares. This process was started by Margaret Thatcher and the Conservative Party in 1979, but has been accepted by Tony Blair and New Labour. Industries which have been privatized include British Telecom (BT), British Airways (BA), British Gas, water and electricity supplies, British Coal and British Rail.

Nationalized industries
The term refers to the Labour Party policy of a centrally planned economy and state ownership of industries laid out in the party’s Clause 4. Consequently, post-war Labour governments placed a number of industries under public ownership, such as the railways, water, gas and electricity, ship-building, coal-mining, iron and steel industries, airlines, the health service, post office and telecommunications. These industries were subsidized by taxation and very expensive to run, since governments were expected to rescue any that had economic problems.

Channel Tunnel
The rail tunnel under the English Channel between England and France designed to carry passengers and vehicles on specially constructed trains. The tunnel, which has the potential of changing Britain’s physical and psychological isolation from Europe, was opened in 1994 and is privately run by a French-British company (Eurotunnel).

Non-white immigration
A term used to describe immigrants to Britain from the New Commonwealth countries, such as the West Indies, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and African countries. These people came to Britain in large numbers in the 50s and 60s and have been subject to various immigration restrictions.

Multiracial
Multiracial means consisting of different races, cultures and religions. With the settlement and integration of Asian and black communities since the Second World War Britain is gradually becoming a multiracial society.

Multicultural
Multicultural refers to a society in which many cultures flourish. This was always the case in Britain, since its population is a mixture of people from different nations and cultural backgrounds.

Norman Conquest
The invasion of Britain by William the Conqueror from Normandy in AD 1066. The Norman Conquest was an important watershed in English history. It marked the last successful external military invasion of the country and initiated many of the social and institutional frameworks, like the feudal system and a legal system. The Normans also attempted to systematically evaluate England’s wealth and population for the first time in the Domesday Book.

National identity
The term used to describe the attachment people feel to their nation. In Britain one may speak of separate national identities for the Scots, the Welsh, the English and the Irish, but also of an overarching identity with the United Kingdom. A national identity is supposed to include a common history, a set of shared values and state institutions as well as a common culture.

Britishness/British identity
The term refers to the idea that there is a set of shared values, a common history and culture which unite all Britons. Developments such as increasing multiculturalism, Europeanization, globalization and devolution seem to challenge the notion of Britishness today. There is an ongoing debate in Britain as to what values should be regarded as core values with the potential of being shared by most people. Some would claim that focusing on a common British identity is not necessary, whereas others see it as essential for keeping the union together.

Parliament
The supreme law-making body of the British governmental system comprising the House of Commons, the House of Lords and (formally) the monarch. Parliament also scrutinizes the workings and policies of the sitting government, and controls public revenue. However parliamentary sovereignty has been challenged by EU membership and devolution. In addition many people feel that a concentration of power in the hands of the Prime Minister diminishes Parliament’s scrutinizing powers.

House of Lords
The upper, less politically significant, branch of the British Parliament. It acts as a revising body, examines bills which are sent from the Commons, discusses a range of matters for which the Commons lacks time, proposes amendments to bills, oversees European Union legislation and serves as a final court of appeal for most parts of Britain. The actual powers of the House of Lords amount to being able to ask the Commons to think again about a piece of legislation and thereby delay or encourage amendments to legislation which it does not approve of.  The House of Lords is an unelected chamber which up to 1999 consisted of about 1200 unpaid peers (Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal), most of them hereditary peers. In 1999, however, the Labour Party decided to get rid of the peers who had inherited their titles on the grounds that they found the institution undemocratic. The remaining House of Lords consists of some 650 peers of whom a majority are appointed by various prime ministers. The peers have traditionally represented a great deal of expertise and been a useful counterweight to the government which dominates the Commons, since it has been less influenced by party discipline. There is now much debate about the future of the House of Lords, and Tony Blair is being criticized for wanting to base membership of the Lords on appointments. His many appointments to the upper chamber during his first term as Prime Minister have been referred to by his opponents as ‘Tony’s cronies’.

Lords Spiritual
A collective term for the 2 archbishops (of York and Canterbury) and the 24 senior bishops of the Church of England who sit in the House of Lords, and thereby represent the Church in its parliamentary connection.

Lords Temporal
The term for all peers in the House of Lords who are not counted as Lords Spiritual. This includes the remaining 92 hereditary peers as well as life peers and the Law Lords)

Law Lords
Specialist legal peers in the House of Lords who function as the highest court of appeal in civil cases in Britain and for criminal cases in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. These peers have held senior judicial office in the court system. To decide an appeal case 3-4 of them are needed.

House of Commons
The lower, but politically most important, branch of the British Parliament, which comprises 659 MPs from all parts of the UK elected after the first-past-the-post system. Its principal functions are to make national law (Acts of Parliament), scrutinize government policies and debate current political issues. The maximum legal term for the House of Commons is five years.

Monarch
The term for the king or queen, who is the formal head of the British government, but whose governmental powers are limited to giving the Royal Assent to bills and appointing the Prime Minister. After devolution the monarch also gives her assent to legislation from the Scottish Parliament. In addition the monarch is head of the Commonwealth and the Church of England. Furthermore the monarch serves as an important unifying symbol.

Political parties:
The main British parties include the Conservative (Tory) Party, the Labour Party and the Liberal Democratic Party. Since the early twentieth century the Conservatives and Labour have competed for governmental office. Northern Ireland has its own set of political parties and the British parties do not campaign there.

Conservative Party
The right-wing alternative to the Labour Party in British politics. Recently it held governmental power for 18 years under Margaret Thatcher (1979-90) and John Major (1990-97). Historically it has championed free enterprise in economic matters, sought to preserve and improve national institutions, encouraged property-owning and been supported mainly by the upper and middle classes. Since the 1980s the Conservative Party has increasingly become an English core (South East) party with very little support in the peripheries, and is also linked to Euroscepticism.

Labour Party
The biggest left-wing alternative to the Conservatives in Britain. Historically it has campaigned on behalf of the working class against the employers and capital-owners and has been closely associated with the trade union movement and has defended socialist policies, including high taxation and government spending as well as nationalized industries. Since the 1990s, however, the party has moved towards the political centre (New Labour) and has incorporated many of the traditional Conservative policies, thereby appealing more to the English middle class. But still the Labour Party is supported most faithfully in the industrial north of England as well as in Scotland and Wales.

Liberal Democrats
The biggest third party in the British adversarial system. As a relatively small party it suffers from the effect of the first-past-the-post electoral system which favours the bigger parties. In the early 1980s, however, the Liberal Democrats benefited from a general disillusionment with the two major parties and gained support. Historically, the Liberal Party has been the party of constitutional change favouring electoral reform, devolution and reform of the House of Lords. New Labour has now largely taken over its policies and thereby squeezed the party to a certain extent. Today the Liberal Democrats are in coalition with Labour in the Welsh Assembly and the Scottish Parliament, and the Labour party actively sought its support to get its devolution programme through.

Privy Council
Historically the private advisory council of the sovereign, composed of close associates at the court. Today the council’s chief role is to advise the Queen to formally approve government decisions. All Cabinet ministers are automatically members of the Privy Council, and the sovereign may appoint eminent people in Britain and Commonwealth countries as members. In addition its Judicial Committee is important. It serves as the final court of appeal for some dependencies and Commonwealth countries. Following devolution the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council has been awarded the role of acting almost like a constitutional court in deciding whether the devolved bodies operate within their powers if a conflict with Westminster occurs.

Electoral system
In general, British elections are held under the first-past-the-post system, by which the constituency candidate who wins the majority of votes becomes the MP (Member of Parliament) from this constituency, however small this majority may be. Similarly, the party which wins the majority of seats in the House of Commons wins the election and its leader is asked by the monarch to form the government. In Northern Ireland a system of proportional representation (PR) is being used, by which the distribution of seats depends on the share of the popular vote. Various forms of proportional election are furthermore used for elections to the European Parliament (since 1999) and for the devolved assemblies both in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.

Prime Minister
The head of Her Majesty’s government, who is formally appointed by the monarch. He is normally the leader of the biggest party in the House of Commons and presides over the Cabinet, chooses government ministers, is the head of the Civil Service and is responsible for the country’s domestic and foreign policies. He or she also recommends other legal, religious or state appointments (e.g. peers to the House of Lords) to the monarch.

Cabinet
The small group of 20-24 government ministers who largely head the most important ministries or departments at Whitehall. They are appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Prime Minister to perform an executive role in collectively deciding or initiating government policy, maintaining control of government and co-ordinating the work of government departments. The Cabinet normally meets once a week privately at No. 10 Downing Street (the Prime Minister’s official London residence) when Parliament is in session.

Civil Service
The state administrative organization or bureaucracy which consists of ministries and departments mainly in London (Whitehall), but with agencies and branches in other parts of the country. It is staffed by professional civil servants, who remain in the job despite a change of government, and is responsible for implementing the policies of the current government at all levels of national life.

British constitution
Britain does not have a written constitution contained in any one document. Its constitution is based on the common law, statute law (Acts of Parliament), conventions (e.g. the monarch’s formal powers of giving her assent to bills and asking the leader of the biggest party to form the government after an election), some written authorities (Magna Carta 1215 and the Bill of Rights 1689) and European law.

Constitutional reform
The term refers to the policy of changing some of the structures related to government in Britain, such as devolution, electoral reform, reform of the House of Lords and local government reform. Traditionally this has been key issues of the Liberal Democrats, but since the 1990s constitutional reform has also been advocated and set in motion by the Labour Party.

District and county council
The county councils comprise the largest unit of local government in England. They consist of elected, unpaid county councillors who are responsible for large-scale functions in their areas and for overall policy making including education, the police, transport, traffic regulation, consumer protection, rubbish disposal, the fire service, libraries and the personal social services. Council meetings are presided over by the Mayor who also is the official representative of the area. Each county council is divided into district councils (rural or urban), which are concerned with more local duties, organize services and implement county programmes. Reform in the 1990s provided Scotland and Wales with a single-tier structure of local government (see unitary authorities). In Northern Ireland the district councils comprise the only local government authority.

Unitary authorities
The undivided local government authority in Scotland and Wales introduced by the Conservative government in the 1990s. Some parts of England have also got unitary structures. The single-tier structure in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland made devolution easier than in England which has a more complex local government structure.

Directly elected mayor
A Labour government initiative since the late 1990s. These directly elected mayors have very few powers and fixed grants from central government limit their autonomy further. London got its first directly elected mayor in 2000. There have been referendums in other cities on this issue too, but most have resulted in a negative outcome.

United Nations
An international organization established after the Second World War to maintain international peace and security and to achieve co-operation in solving international economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems. The organization was awarded the Nobel peace Prize in 2001. Britain is a permanent member of the Security Council as well as many other UN agencies.

NATO
A defensive alliance of a number of western nations which will respond to aggression in self-defence if one of its members is attacked. This is what happened after the terror attacks on the USA on 11^th September 2001. British defence policy has been founded on that of NATO since the organization was formed in 1949.

Euroscepticism
An attitude of scepticism to the European Union and its institutions which has been present in Britain for decades. Closer integration from the late 1980s has met with opposition in Britain, especially among Conservative politicians, but European integration has generally caused splits in both major parties between pro-Europeans and Eurosceptics.

Union institutions:

European Council
The European Council comprises the heads of government from each of the member states and has become a key policy initiating body.

Council of Ministers
The Council of Ministers is the main decision-making body of the EU and comprises the ministers from each of the member states who are responsible for the debated issue (e.g agriculture).

European Commission
The Commission acts like the ‘civil service’ of the Union, headed by 20 commissioners, two of whom are British. The Commission also initiates much of the policy and therefore receives the attention of various lobby groups.

European Parliament
The European Parliament, to which there are elections in the member states every five years, is the weakest body of the EU. European elections in Britain have very low turnouts.

European Court of Justice
This court in Luxembourg comprises 15 judges and is important (also as a law-making body) because it interprets what the treaties on European integration mean.

Maastricht Treaty
The treaty from 1992 establishing a European Union. In addition to the original economic and social policy co-operation the treaty extended the scope of European integration to foreign and security policy as well as justice and home affairs. It also included plans for a monetary union and the introduction of the euro. In short, the treaty made decision-making more supranational, and Britain was reluctant to sign it. As a compromise Britain was allowed to choose when and if to join the single currency.

Republicans
A group of people in Northern Ireland who want re-unification with Ireland. They are also referred to as nationalists and have a Catholic link. Republicans or nationalists make up the one side of the conflict in Northern Ireland. The other comprises loyalists or unionists.

Loyalists
The grouping in Northern Ireland which is loyal to the United Kingdom and wants the union with Britain to continue. They are often referred to as unionists. See republicans.

IRA
Short for the Irish Republican Army, an organization of militant Irish nationalists, known as the Provisionals, which split from the Official IRA in 1969-70. They have a following among Catholics, and their campaigns of violence in Northern Ireland and on the mainland of Britain are intended to lead to a united Irish Republic. The Provisionals are illegal in Britain and the Irish Republic, but are supported by a legal political wing, Sinn Fein. Since 1998 the IRA has proved an obstacle to the peace process in Northern Ireland by refusing to decommission its weapons.

Sinn Fein
The Irish nationalist or republican political party founded in 1905, which earlier campaigned for the complete separation of Ireland from Britain and which now, as the political wing of the Provisional IRA, fights for Northern Ireland to be united with the Republic of Ireland. Following the peace process Sinn Fein has moved away from its justification of ‘armed struggle’ towards devotion to constitutional politics. The party’s members to the House of Commons never take their seats because they refuse to give the oath to the monarch.

Unionist parties:

Ulster Unionist Party (UUP)
The main unionist party in Northern Ireland with a link to the Orange Order. The party has played a major role in the peace process since the late 1990s.

Democratic Unionist Party (DUP)
The more fundamentalist unionist party in Northern Ireland with connection to the Free Presbyterian Church and led by its reverend, Ian Paisley since its foundation in 1970. The party is critical of the peace process and vehemently opposed the release of paramilitary prisoners following the GoodFridayAgreement of 1998.

Power-sharing
A principle of government in divided societies to prevent one group from dominating others. It is a very central principle in the developments in Northern Ireland, where the executive established in December 1999 is bound to reflect the composition of society in terms of unionists and nationalists.

Direct rule
The direct supervision and control of many security and administrative matters in Northern Ireland by the British government, instead of these being dealt with by a separate parliament in Northern Ireland elected by the people in the province. Direct rule was first introduced in 1972 following an upsurge of violence in Northern Ireland and the inability of the then Northern Ireland government to carry out reforms. The device was used again for a couple of months in 2000 as the new Northern Ireland Executive collapsed over the issue of decommissioning of IRA weapons.

Good Friday Agreement
The peace agreement reached in Belfast in 1998 between nationalists and unionists in Northern Ireland. It included the establishment of a Northern Ireland Assembly and Executive (devolution) based on power-sharing. It also created bodies for a wider British-Irish relationship. The compromise meant that unionists had to accept the release of IRA prisoners whereas nationalists had to make the IRA hand in its weapons (decommissioning). Wide majorities accepted the agreement in referendums held in both the Irish Republic and Northern Ireland.

European law
European law has direct application in Britain as a consequence of membership of the European Union. In cases of conflict European law takes precedence over British law. European and British courts can therefore force the British Parliament to withdraw or amend pieces of legislation which are not compatible with EU law.

Criminal and civil law:

Criminal law
The object of the criminal law is to punish a person accused or found guilty of a crime. The punishment is usually a fine or imprisonment. Most British crimes are defined by statute (Act of Parliament) and more often than not it is the state which initiates the proceedings against an individual or group.

Civil law
That branch of the law which deals with property, commerce and companies, wills and succession, the family, contracts and non-criminal wrongful acts done by one person to another, as well as constitutional, administrative and industrial matters. It attempts to settle disputes between people, and between individuals and organizations.

Human Rights Act
The Human Rights Act passed in 1998 provided for the incorporation of the European Convention of Human Rights into British law from October 2000. In practice this means that British citizens who feel that their human rights have been violated can now have their case decided by courts in Britain instead of having to go to the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg. The Human Rights Act is regarded as a first step towards a Bill of Rights, which is absent in Britain, although some would claim that human rights are already protected by other British laws.

Magistrates
Judicial officials without professional legal qualifications, also known as Justices of the Peace (JP). They are appointed by the Lord Chancellor and act as unpaid and part-time judges in the magistrates’ courts in England, Wales and Northern Ireland to decide minor (summary) criminal and some civil cases without a jury. The magistrates’ court is the lowest criminal court in these parts of the UK and decides the majority of all crimes (95%). Scotland has its own equivalent to the magistrates’ court in the sheriff/district court.

Crown Court
The higher criminal court in England and Wales that handles serious (indictable) offences and holds trials in the larger towns and cities. The particular case is decided by a jury of 12 people and a judge pronounces the appropriate sentence. Scotland and Northern Ireland have courts performing similar roles.

Macpherson
The man who led the inquiry into the death of Stephen Lawrence, a black teenager who was stabbed to death by a gang of whites in 1993. The investigation resulted in the Macpherson report which was published in February 1999 and claimed to find evidence of institutional racism (defined as ‘the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic background’) in the police force. The report also issued a number of recommendations to improve the situation. Following the report there was a decline in the use of the police’s stop and search powers as well as a rise in street crime. Probably another effect was an increased number of incidents being reported as racial.

Legal aid
A state system established in 1949, whereby those people who are unable to afford legal advice and representation in criminal and civil matters because of their low income may have their legal bills paid by the state if they have a suitable case. They are sometimes required to repay the legal aid, depending on whether the court awards them money or property as a result of their case.

Barrister
In England and Wales, a lawyer who has been admitted to one of the Inns of Court (comprising 4 legal associations with medieval properties in central London) and ‘called to the Bar’ (the professional legal organization for barristers) as a full member of the profession. A barrister is self-employed, advising on legal problems usually provided by solicitors, and arguing cases in the higher criminal and civil courts, based on the documents of the case supplied by a solicitor. In general, the public do not have direct access to a barrister but must proceed through a solicitor.

Solicitor
One of the two types of qualified lawyer in England and Wales (the other is barrister) who advises clients on a range of legal matters, such as conveyancing, crime, business, divorce and probate, and who can appear before the client in the magistrates’ court and the county court. He or she is normally a member of the Law Society, the solicitors’ professional organization.

Keynesianism
Economic policy after the theories of John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946), which advocates vigorous government action to stimulate economic growth through high levels of spending and the control of aggregate demand in order to avoid slumps and booms.

Laissez-faire
An economic principle advocated by economic liberals of minimal government intervention into the forces of the free market.

Deindustrialization
The process in Britain in the 1980s when the traditional heavy manufacturing industries such as steel, coal-mining and ship-building were reduced in number and scale, leading to unemployment in the workforce. The national economy has since moved from heavy industry to lighter, more diversified manufactures and the service sector trades.

Welfare to Work
A social policy introduced by the Blair government in 1997 aiming to provide work, education and training programmes for the unemployed by processing government money to companies which are prepared to create jobs for the unemployed. This policy is an attempt to get rid of an alleged dependency culture in which people can rely on state benefits without having to make an individual effort to improve their situation.

Nationalization
The policy of placing the main industries under state control, a policy pursued by the Labour Party since the Second World War, but abandoned by New Labour in the 1990s.

City of London
An independent local government area in East London, with its own police force and institutional structures. It is one of the world’s financial and commercial centres, and its territory of one square mile comprises banks, the Bank of England, the Stock Exchange, legal firms and many financial and insurance companies.

Bank of England
The central national bank of England and Wakes, situated in the City of London. It was established in 1694 and nationalized in 1946 by the Labour government. Since 1997, however it has enjoyed more independence from the government. It prints and circulates banknotes, acts as the government’s financial adviser, decides the bank rate, implements government monetary policy and seeks to maintain stability in the financial markets, domestically and abroad.

Stock Exchange
An independent institution in the City of London established in 1802, which is a financial market for the buying and selling of stocks and shares at market prices and where industry and companies may raise capital from investors.

Lloyd’s
An insurance market comprising private associations of London underwriters (groups of insurers willing to bear any eventual loss) founded in 1688. Historically it dealt mainly with marine, shipping and trading insurance, and still publishes a daily record of shipping information. But today it also handles a wide range of other insurance policies.

TUC
Short for the Trades Union Congress, an umbrella organization of trade unions which was established in 1868 to represent the interests of the trade union movement. It campaigns to improve the employment, social and economic conditions of employees, negotiates with government and employees, provides a wide range of services for its members and holds an annual conference to debate common problems and to decide general policy. Historically, the TUC has been able to influence the Labour Party, but with New Labour this relationship has cooled off.

CBI
Short for the Confederation of British Industry, an independent body established in 1965, which promotes the interests of employers in private and state industrial companies and commercial businesses. It serves as an umbrella organization, similar to the TUC, and provides advice and assistance to its members, negotiates with government and the trade unions and presents the views of its members to the general public.

ACAS
Short for the Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service, which is an independent, government-financed organization representing both sides of industry. It was established in 1975 and may provide, if requested, advice, conciliation and arbitration services for the parties (usually employers and employees) involved in a dispute in both the public and private sectors of the national economy. ACAS attempts to avoid or end strikes and industrial problems, and advises generally on industrial relations and employment matters.

Welfare State
The range of state programmes which provide for the health and social welfare of the British population, centring mainly on the social security system, the national social services and the NHS. These cover the basic economic, health and social needs of the people. The welfare system in Britain is based on the 1942 report by Sir William Beveridge proposing a social security system ‘from the cradle to the grave’. Many of his ideas were put into practice by the Labour government after 1945.

Contributory and non-contributory benefits:

Contributory

Benefits for workers who have contributed to it by paying into the National Insurance Fund. These include state retirement pensions, maternity pay, sick pay, disability allowances and allowances to widowed mothers and people seeking work (the former unemployment benefit).

Non-contributory
Income-related benefits, such as Income Support and Housing Benefit, given to those who have not contributed to the National Insurance Fund.

Income Support
The means-tested basic benefit within the state social security system, which is paid in variable amounts to individuals who lack enough money to provide for their needs, like the unemployed, some old age pensioners, single parents, the sick and the disabled.

Housing Benefit
A state benefit within the social security system which is paid to employed and unemployed people on low incomes to help them pay their rent and housing costs. The amount is dependent upon family status and total income.

Social Security
State financial benefits which are paid to people who are in need and who may not have contributed to the national insurance scheme (non-contributory), and benefits for those who have contributed (contributory). The money spent on social security amounts to almost one third of government spending and is raised from public taxation and the national insurance scheme.

NHS
Short for the National Health Service which was established in 1948 to provide free state primary medical services throughout the United Kingdom. It is largely financed by taxation and national insurance, and allows people to obtain medical treatment from doctors and in hospitals. However, charges may be made for prescriptions, eye tests and dental care.

Self-governing trusts
Conservative government reforms of the NHS have since 1990 allowed some hospitals to become self-governing trusts. This means that they are responsible for running their own affairs and deciding their priorities, are independent of local health authority control, are funded directly by central government through general taxation, and are accountable to the Department of Health. They are still hospitals within the NHS, though.

Fund-holding GPs
Under Conservative reforms general practitioners (GPs) became fund-holders. This meant that they were given a budget from central government, and could themselves choose how to spend it, including buying services and treatment for their patients at local hospitals.

Community Care
A controversial social welfare policy of the previous Conservative government which releases long-term hospital patients into the care of local authorities, and encourages such patients and the elderly to live at home, with their families or in special accommodation. The aim is to prevent the institutionalization and isolation of people and give them independence.

Mortgage
A legal agreement for a financial loan from a building society or other lending institution which enables the borrower to buy a house or flat and obtain tax relief on the loan. The loan must be repaid in monthly instalments. An inability to do so means that the lender can legally repossess the house.

Right to buy
Legislation introduced by the Conservative government in 1980 which allows tenants in council housing to buy the houses or flats they are renting from the local council at below market prices, if they have lived there for at least two years. The policy has been criticized for leading to a shortage of cheap accommodation.

Council housing
Accommodation built and rented out by a local government council to low-income tenants. As a consequence of Margaret Thatcher’s right-to-buy policy council house tenants may now buy their houses at below market prices after two years.

Slum clearance
A policy of renovation in the worst housing estates in the inner cities. Much was achieved in terms of slum clearance by the 1960s, but a drawback of the policy was that people were forced to move to another area of poor and cheap housing because they could not afford to rent the renovated houses. There are still areas, especially in the inner-cities where the quality of housing is very bad.

1944 Education Act
Legislation which reorganized the state primary and secondary school system in England and Wales. The intention of the 1944 Act (also known as the Butler Act) was to provide universal and free primary and secondary education. It laid the foundations for the selective system of grammar schools and secondary modern schools based on the 11 plus exam and placed responsibility for education under LEAs.

11 plus
The national school examination that was previously used in England and Wales to select which pupils at the age of 11 should receive a secondary education at an academic grammar school, a non-academic secondary modern school, or a technical school. This selective regime has been replaced by the comprehensive system, although school selection procedures (if not the 11 plus) are still operated by a small minority of local education authorities (LEAs) which retain grammar schools.

LEAs
Short for local education authorities which are the local government organizations in England and Wales that supervise and determine education policy and services in most of the state schools in their area. They hire teachers, maintain and repair school property, provide educational equipment and supervise the school curriculum.

Opted-out schools
Following Conservative government reform schools were allowed to opt out of local authority control and become grant-maintained schools if a majority of parents voted for it. These opted-out schools are still state schools, but are self-governing, receive their funding directly from the Department for Education, and the headteachers and governors are responsible for their own school budgets and management.

National Curriculum
The centralized study programme for primary and secondary education in England and Wales following the 1988 Education Reform Act, which was an attempt by the government to improve educational standards. The National Curriculum calls for regular testing in core and foundation subjects and is closely related to national examinations such as the GCSE.

GCSE
Short for the General Certificate of Secondary Education, which is the main school-leaving examination at the age of 16. It was introduced in 1988 and is closely related to the National Curriculum. GCSE certificates are awarded for each subject (usually six or seven) passed on a scale form A to G. The final grade is composed of marks for project work spread over the two-year course and of written examinations.

GCE A level
After the GCSE exams students may go on to do their A levels, which implies a specialization in at least three subjects. The GCE A level is necessary to go on to higher education.

Polytechnics
Institutions of higher education in England and Wales that supply a large number of vocational and academic courses at degree and diploma levels. They were once closely tied to their local government councils, but are now independent bodies. Since 1992 polytechnics have been allowed to apply for university status and most have been granted such status.

Student grant
Any qualified British student who obtained a place at an institution of higher education in Britain used to receive a grant of money from his or her local education authority (LEA) which paid for tuition fees and the maintenance of the student during term time. In 1998, however, the Labour government abolished the student grant requiring students in England and Wales to cover these costs themselves.

Tuition fee
A fee paid by English students who have been accepted at an institution of higher education. The fee used to be covered by the student grant, but since the Labour government abolished this in 1998, English students have to take up loans to finance their studies. Based on a system of means testing students from poor families may not have to pay tuition fees. As a consequence of devolution the tuition fee is an English phenomenon and Scottish students do not have to pay for higher education.

Fleet Street
The well-known street in central London which until the late 1980s was the centre of the national newspaper industry and where most newspapers had their headquarters. They have now left the street for other sites in the capital, such as Wapping in East London, but the term ‘Fleet Street’ is still synonymous with national papers.

Tabloid
The common name for newspapers with small-size pages, as opposed to broadsheet papers, which usually means the national popular press, such as The Sun, The Mirror, the Daily Mail and the Daily Express.

Broadsheet
A term to describe the large-page format of the quality national newspapers, as opposed to the tabloid size of the popular newspapers. Examples are The Times, The Guardian and The Daily Telegraph.

Free newspaper
A weekly local newspaper, delivered to homes throughout Britain without cost to the recipient. It largely consists of advertisements, which pay the costs of publishing, but also carries some local news and feature articles.

BBC
Short for the British Broadcasting Corporation, which covers national broadcasting in both television and radio and is financed by a grant from Parliament, largely based on a licence fee. From its beginnings in 1927 (1936 for television) the BBC used to have a broadcasting monopoly, but this changed in 1954 when the Independent Television Authority (later the IBA) was created. Independent radio stations have been an alternative to BBC radio since 1972. The BBC has two television channels and five national radio stations as well as an external service (the BBC World Service) in both radio and television.

ITC (IBA)
Short for Independent Television Commission which from 1990 replaced the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA) to license and supervise the non-BBC commercial television services. These comprise ITV/ Channel 3, Channel 4, Channel 5 and cable, teletext and satellite services.

Duopoly
A term describing a situation where two organizations are the only suppliers of a service (cp. monopoly). In Britain this applies to broadcasting, which is shared between the public service of the BBC and the independent/commercial service of the ITC(IBA)

Sub judice
The legal rule which stipulates that the media and individuals must not make any comments on a court case which is proceeding, except to describe the facts of those proceedings. Any person or organization infringing the rule may be punished by the judge with a fine or imprisonment for contempt of court.

Libel
The making of written or published accusations by one person against another which are proved in the high Court to be false or harmful to an individual’s reputation, and for which damages may be awarded.

Freedom of Information Act
Suggested legislation by the Labour government which is intended to open up official information to public scrutiny. It will allow the public to obtain some official information from schools, local government, hospitals, health authorities, the police and other public bodies. The act would give British citizens a legal right to information held by public bodies for the first time and aims at more open government. However, critics claim that the drafted legislation is too weak and that there are too many exemptions to make it an effective device of openness.

PCC
Short for the Press Complaints Commission, an independent body originally founded by newspaper owners in 1953 as the Press Council to preserve the freedom and standards of the British press. Now known as the PCC, it assesses complaints made by the public about the activities and reporting of newspapers and magazines, and must publish its findings.

Ecumenism
A religious term referring to co-operation across Christian communities based on a belief in universal Christian unity.

Observance
In religious terms it refers to the active participation in religious ceremonies, including church attendance. In Britain the figures for religious observance are relatively low.

Attendance
Religiously speaking the term refers to the number of people present at religious ceremonies and church services.

Church of England
The established church in England was founded in 1534, after which it developed from a Roman Catholic into a Protestant Church. The monarch is the secular head of the Church who appoints the religious leadership of archbishops, bishops and deans on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Church receives very little state finance, but its forms of worship are subject to approval by Parliament.

Fox hunting
A controversial issue between wealthy countryside people who want to continue this traditional leisure activity and urban people who see it as barbaric. The Labour government has been committed to a ban on fox hunting, but restrictions were only introduced after the outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease in 2001. An absolute ban seems unlikely due to fierce opposition from the countryside lobby.

‘cricket test’
A term introduced to decide whether ethnic minority groups in Britain have a true British identity. According to this rhetoric such an identity is supposed to be revealed by e.g. British Jamaicans supporting the English cricket team when England is playing the Jamaican team.